فولو

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الموسوعة الحرة
لوحة جدارية من فولونيكا VI 8، 20.21.2 في بومبي، وهي الآن في المتحف الوطني في نابولي.

كان الفولو عامل غسيل أو تنظيف أقمشة روماني (جمعه: فولونيس )، معروفًا من خلال العديد من النقوش في إيطاليا والنصف الغربي من الإمبراطورية الرومانية ، بالإضافة إلى إشارات في الأدب اللاتيني ، مثل كتابات بلاوتوس ومارتياليس وبليني الأكبر . كان الفولو يعمل في مصنع غسيل أو ورشة تنظيف . وهناك أيضًا أدلة على أن الفولونيس كانوا يتعاملون مع القماش مباشرة من النول، على الرغم من أن بعض الباحثين المعاصرين شككوا في ذلك. [ 1 ] في بعض المزارع الكبيرة، بُنيت مصانع غسيل حيث كان يُستخدم العبيد لتنظيف القماش. وقد عُثر على ورش عمل الفولونيس في العديد من المدن الرومانية. ومن أهم الأمثلة على ذلك ورش أوستيا وبومبي ، ولكن عُثر أيضًا على ورش عمل الفولونيس في ديلوس وفلورنسا وفريجوس وبالقرب من فورلي : في متحف فورلي الأثري، يوجد نقش بارز قديم يُظهر مصنع غسيل. بينما يعود تاريخ ورش العمل الصغيرة في ديلوس إلى القرن الأول قبل الميلاد، فإن تلك الموجودة في بومبي تعود إلى القرن الأول الميلادي ، وقد تم بناء المنشآت في أوستيا وفلورنسا خلال عهد الإمبراطورين تراجان وهادريان .

عملية التلبيد

تتكون عملية التنظيف من ثلاث مراحل رئيسية. وتشمل هذه المراحل: وضع الصابون، والشطف، والتشطيب.

التزيين بالصابون

كانت الملابس تُعالج في أحواض صغيرة موضوعة في تجاويف محاطة بجدران منخفضة. يقف عامل الدباغة وقد وضع قدميه في الحوض المملوء بالماء ومزيج من المواد الكيميائية القلوية (بما في ذلك أحيانًا الأمونيا المستخرجة من البول)، ثم يدوس القماش ويفركه ويعصره. كان الهدف من هذه المعالجة هو تطبيق المواد الكيميائية على القماش لتؤدي وظيفتها في إزالة الشحوم والدهون. تُعرف المنشآت التي كانت تُستخدم في هذه المعالجة عادةً باسم "أكشاك الدباغة" أو "أكشاك التدباغ"، أو خطأً باسم "سالتوس فولونيكوس"، وهي نموذجية لورش الدباغة، وكثيرًا ما يستخدمها علماء الآثار لتحديد مواقع "الفولونيكا" في البقايا الأثرية.

الشطف

After the clothes were soaped in the chemicals, the dirt that they had resolved had to be washed out. This happened with fresh water in a complex of large basins that often were connected to the urban water supply. The typical rinsing complex consisted of three or four basins that were connected to each other: the fresh water entered on one side of the complex, the dirty water left it on the other side. Clothes followed the opposite direction of the water and went from the basin with the dirtiest water to the basin with the cleanest water.[2]

Finishing

The last phase of the fulling process consisted of a variety of treatments. The precise sequence is not exactly known and may have varied, depending on the nature of the workshop and the demands of customers.

  • The cloth was often brushed, with the thistle of plants, and sheared, as is indicated from finds in some Pompeian fullonicae.[3]
  • Sometimes, clothes were also treated with sulfur. The cloth was then hung on a basket woven structure called a viminea cavea.[4] This structure can be seen in the figure above. Fullones added sulfur to white cloths to maintain the color, knowing that sulfur was volatile enough to destroy colors.
  • The clothes were also pressed in a screw press. Remains of such presses have been found at Pompeii and Herculaneum, and a depiction was found in a Pompeian fullonica and is now displayed in the National Museum in Naples.

The fullo and the state

According to Pliny the Elder, the work of fullones was taken very seriously. C. Flaminius and L. Aemilius wrote the proper method for fullones to practice in the Metilian Law. The law stressed the use of Cimolian earth (similar to Fuller's earth) to brighten and freshen colors that have faded due to sulfur. On the other hand, the law stated that the mineral saxum was useful for white clothing but harmful to colors.[5]

Fullones were legally responsible for the clothes they were washing. Fullones were subject to penalties if they returned the wrong clothes or damaged the clothes. Furthermore, clothes once washed were considered devalued. In fact, Emperor Elagabalus said that he would not touch linen that had been washed because such cloth had already been devalued.[6] Still, the profession of a fullo was highly reputable. Fullones in Ostia created their own guild, called Corpus Fontanorum. The fuller guild of Pompeii dedicated a statue to Eumachia in the Building of Eumachia on the Pompeian Forum. The connection between Eumachia and the Fullers is not clear, but the building may have been used for selling cloth, although it could have been a market for anything. [7][8]

These Roman launderers worshipped the goddess Minerva, as did many other professions. Therefore, the fullones were particularly involved with Quinquatrus, Minerva’s main feast held on March 19. The feast often took place in a fullo's workshops.[9] Fullones are associated with representations of owls, such as in Roman graffiti found in Pompeii.[10] There has been a lively scholarly debate whether the association is due to the owl of Minerva or due to Varro's proverbial phrase: "men fear him worse than the fuller fears the screech owl". Sat. Men. 86. 4[11]

Archaeological remains of fullonicae

Thus far, eleven fullonicae are known at Pompeii, the most famous of which is the Fullonica of Stephanus along the Via dell'Abbondanza, where the remains of the fulling workshop can be seen in the back of the house. Most other workshops are rather small and are hard to recognize. Recent fieldwork by the Radboud University Nijmegen has resulted in the definitive identification of three previously unknown fulling workshops [12]

At Ostia, three extremely large fullonicae have been excavated along with two smaller ones. Best preserved is the large fullonica of the Via degli Augustali.[13]

An important recent development is the excavation of an exceptionally large fulling workshop in Casal Bertone, in Rome. This workshop is three times as large as the large Ostian fullonicae and was discovered during a rescue excavation for the construction of the high-speed railway from Roma Tiburtina to Naples. It was situated outside the ancient city in an area that also functioned as a necropolis.[14] This workshop is probably the largest workshop from antiquity.

See also

References

  1. ↑Ostia Topographical Dictionary
  2. ↑Flohr 2006, 193-200.
  3. ↑Flohr 2006, 194
  4. ↑Smith, William, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (London, England: John Murray, 1875), article: "Fullo", pp, 551-553.
  5. ↑Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, XXXV.57
  6. ↑Elagabalus, Historia Augusta, IIVI.
  7. ↑Berry, Joanne (2010). The Complete Pompeii (1st ed.). London: Thames and Hudson. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-500-05150-4. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
  8. ↑Clements, Peter and Michael. "Building of Eumachia". AD79. Archived from the original on September 23, 2020. Retrieved May 10, 2020.
  9. ↑Peck, H. (1898). Fullo at Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. New York: Harper and Brothers.
  10. ↑Miko Flohr (2013). The World of the Fullo: Work, Economy, and Society in Roman Italy. OUP Oxford. pp. 341–343. ISBN 9780199659357.
  11. ↑Kristina Milnor (2014). Graffiti and the Literary Landscape in Roman Pompeii. OUP Oxford. pp. 248–249. ISBN 9780199684618.
  12. ↑Cleaning the Laundries 2006-2008 www.mikoflohr.nl/archaeology/ctl
  13. ↑A lot of material has been assembled on Ostia Antica
  14. ↑The excavation is currently unpublished, but has attracted some attention from international media: International Herald Tribune, July 31, 2007; Washington Post, August 1, 2007. The workshop is often erroneously referred to as a tannery.

Further reading

  • Flohr, M. (2006) 'Organizing the Workshop. Water Management in Roman Fullonicae'. In Wiplinger, G. (ed.) Cura Aquarum in Ephesus. Proceedings of the 12th International Congress on the History of Water Management and Hydraulic Engineering in the Mediterranean Region, Ephesus/Selçuk, October 2–10, 2004. Leuven: Peeters. 193 - 200.
  • Wilson, A. (2003) 'The archaeology of the Roman fullonica', Journal of Roman Archaeology 16, 442 - 446.
  • Flohr, M. (2003) 'Fullones and Roman Society. A Reconsideration', Journal of Roman Archaeology 16, 447 - 450.
  • Bradley, M. (2002) 'It all comes out in the wash': Looking harder at the Roman fullonica', Journal of Roman Archaeology 15, 21 - 44.
  • De Ruyt, C. (2001) 'Les Foulons, artisans des textiles et blanchisseurs'. In Descoeudres, J.-P. (ed.) Ostia. Port et Porte de la Rome Antique. Genève: Musée Rath. 186 - 191
  • Robertson, Robert H. S. (1986). Fuller's Earth: A History. Volturna Press: Hyde, Kent. ISBN 0-85606-070-4.