Hiroshima Maidens

Hiroshima Maidens Toyoko Minowa (箕輪 豊子) and Michiko Sako (迫 道子) being examined by Dr. Arthur Barsky in Mount Sinai Hospital, New York, 1955

The Hiroshima Maidens (Japanese: 原爆乙女 (Genbaku Otome); lit.'atomic bomb maidens') were a group of 25 Japanese women who were disfigured by the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and subsequently went on a highly publicized journey to obtain reconstructive surgery in the United States. Originating from a support group organized by Methodist minister Kiyoshi Tanimoto, the Maidens attracted widespread media attention in Japan, with some undergoing surgeries in Tokyo and Osaka. After these surgeries failed, Tanimoto worked with the editor of The Saturday Review of Literature, Norman Cousins, to bring the Maidens to the United States for surgery. They traveled there in 1955.

While in the United States, a team of surgeons at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York performed 138 operations on the Maidens while they stayed at the Pendle Hill Quaker Center for Study and Contemplation and with Quaker host families. One Maiden, Tomoko Nakabayashi, died during surgery. The Maidens returned to Japan in 1956 to mixed reception from the Japanese people. Some viewed them as tools of Cold War propaganda and cultural assimilation, while others praised them for improving Japan–United States relations. After their experience in the United States, the Maidens were portrayed in various dramatic productions and in the 1988 movie Hiroshima Maiden.

Origins

Raising support in Japan

The mushroom cloud after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.
The atomic bombing of Hiroshima

On 6 August 1945, an American plane dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan.[1] Survivors of the bombing called themselves hibakusha. Numerous people experienced deep flash burns from heat rays, as well as hair loss and purpura from the radiation.[2] Many of the flash burns developed into keloid scars.[3] Methodist minister Kiyoshi Tanimoto, inspired by hibakushaShigeko Niimoto, helped create a support group consisting of about 40 unmarried hibakusha women in his church basement.[4] Radiation sickness sufferers were stigmatized in Japanese society, and hibakusha's injuries were often seen as shameful.[5] Many of the women had been hidden away by their families, who feared that their disfigurements would damage their family's reputation.[6]

Tanimoto faced resistance when he tried to seek medical care for the women in Hiroshima, where they were known as "Tanimoto's Keloid Girls". However, with the assistance of a journalist for the widely-circulated Yomiuri Shimbun, he took several of the women on an all-expenses-paid trip to Tokyo, Japan, where they drew the attention of the press, who called them the "Genbaku Otome" (lit.'atomic bomb maidens').[7] As part of this trip, the women visited Sugamo Prison. While there, they met with Japanese war criminals, expressing sympathy for them and claiming that while they once held a grudge against them, since so much time had passed since the war ended, they had "[begun] to realize that the war criminals' plight was the same as theirs". This visit proved controversial, with fellow hibakusha Kiyoshi Kikkawa, who was also present for the visit, finding the women's behavior "disturb[ing]".[8] Soon after, some of the women returned to Tokyo to undergo reconstructive surgery. Others were treated at the Osaka University Medical Center.[9] These surgeries, undertaken by Japanese doctors inexperienced in reconstructive operations, failed to achieve the desired results and in some cases exacerbated the women's injuries.[10]

حشد الدعم في أمريكا

في عام ١٩٥١، بدأ تانيموتو العمل مع نورمان كوزينز، محرر مجلة " ذا ساترداي ريفيو أوف ليتريتشر" ، للترويج لقضية النساء، مُقنعًا إياه بأن أفضل مسارٍ لهنّ هو نقلهنّ إلى الولايات المتحدة لإجراء عمليات جراحية هناك. وكان كوزينز أول من استخدم الاسم الإنجليزي "فتيات هيروشيما" للإشارة إليهنّ. [ ١١ ] استشار كوزينز الدكتور ويليام هيتزيغ، طبيبه الخاص في مستشفى ماونت سيناي بنيويورك، حول جدوى الجراحة الترميمية، وطلب منه تشكيل فريق من الأطباء لإجرائها. [ ١٢ ] ثم رتب مع المحامي ألفريد روز لتغطية تكاليف الاستشفاء. ونظرًا لمعتقداتهم السلمية، طلب كوزينز من الكويكرز توفير سكنٍ للفتيات. [ ١٣ ] ووافقوا على التطوع بمنازلهم لتكون "ملاذات" لهنّ. كما حشد الناشطان بيل ويوري كوتشياما الدعم للمشروع في مجتمع الأمريكيين اليابانيين في نيويورك، وتم الترتيب لمرافقة الأمريكية اليابانية هيلين يوكوياما للفتيات إلى الولايات المتحدة بصفتها "أماً حاضنة". [ 14 ]

بمساعدة كيوشي توغاساكي، رئيس تحرير صحيفة "جابان تايمز" ، أقنع كوزينز الجنرال جون إي. هول بتوفير النقل الجوي للفتيات. في حين عارضت وزارة الخارجية الأمريكية المشروع في البداية، خشية أن يُفسر على أنه اعتراف من جانب الولايات المتحدة بارتكاب خطأ لإسقاطها القنبلة الذرية، إلا أنها وافقت عليه في النهاية بعد أن أقنعها مارفن غرين من مركز هيروشيما للسلام بأنه سيكون له أثر إيجابي على العلاقات اليابانية الأمريكية. [ 15 ] تم اختيار 43 امرأة مبدئيًا كمرشحات للسفر إلى الولايات المتحدة، وعندما سافر هيتزيغ وفريقه إلى اليابان لإجراء فحوصات أولية، تبين أن 25 منهن يستوفين معايير الجراحة. [ 16 ] غادرت الفتيات إلى نيويورك في أبريل 1955. [ 17 ]

تايم إن أمريكا

وصول وتغطية صحفية

في طريقهم إلى نيويورك، توقفت الفتيات لفترة وجيزة في هاواي ، حيث استقبلهن السكان الأمريكيون اليابانيون المحليون بأكاليل الزهور . وأقمن في مساكن الضباط في قاعدة هيكام الجوية ، وقمن بجولة سياحية في الجزيرة. ثم سافرن جواً إلى قاعدة ترافيس الجوية في كاليفورنيا، حيث استقبلتهن جمعية كاليفورنيا الخيرية اليابانية ومجموعة من النساء يمثلن مجلس السلام في شمال كاليفورنيا، واللاتي ألقين خطاباً احتجاجاً على الأسلحة النووية الحرارية . [ 18 ] وأخيراً، وصلن إلى نيويورك في 9 مايو 1955. فور وصولهن، اندفع أعضاء من صحافة نيويورك نحو الفتيات، مما أثار غضب كوزينز، الذي كاد أن يدخل في شجار مع مصور من صحيفتي نيويورك وورلد-تليغرام وذا صن . بعد ذلك، رافقتهن شرطة مدينة نيويورك إلى حفل استقبال أقيم في منزل هيتزيغ المكون من خمسة طوابق. ثم نُقلن إلى مركز بندل هيل كويكر في بنسلفانيا. [ 19 ]

ركزت أوصاف فتيات هيروشيما في الصحافة على خطورة إصاباتهن، وربطتهن بالقنبلة الذرية باستخدام عبارات مثل "ندوب القنبلة" و"ندوب القنبلة الذرية" و"ندوب هيروشيما". [ 20 ] وقد دفعت هذه التغطية الصحفية، بالإضافة إلى عروض فيلم هيروشيما عام 1953 في نيويورك ، وزارة الخارجية الأمريكية إلى إصدار مذكرة داخلية تنص على أن "مساعدة ضحايا الكوارث عملٌ جدير بالثناء، ولكن يجب بذل كل جهد ممكن لمنع المشروع المتعلق بفتيات هيروشيما من إثارة دعاية ضد الأسلحة النووية". [ 21 ]

في الحادي عشر من مايو، سافر تانيموتو وعدد من أعضاء فرقة "ذا ميدنز" إلى لوس أنجلوس للمشاركة في حلقة من برنامج " هذه هي حياتك" . [ 22 ] تفاجأ تانيموتو، الذي أُخبر مسبقًا بأنه سيُجرى معه مقابلة حول فرقة "ذا ميدنز"، بصيغة البرنامج: سرد درامي لحياته مصحوب بمؤثرات صوتية وموسيقى تصويرية وظهور شخصيات بارزة من ماضيه. [ 23 ] في نهاية الفقرة، ظهرت اثنتان من أعضاء الفرقة، تاداكو إيموري وتويوكو مينوا، وشكرتَا الشعب الأمريكي على مساعدتهم، رغم أنهما كانتا خلف شاشات حتى لا "تُحرجا" الجمهور. [ 24 ]

العمليات الجراحية

A woman with burn scars running down her exposed back in a rectangular pattern.
أحد الناجين من قصف هيروشيما النووي، مصاب بندوب حروق نووية تظهر عليها أعراضها.

The Maidens' surgical team included Hitzig; doctors Arthur Barsky, Bernard Simon, and Sidney Kahn; and three Japanese doctors who had traveled with the Maidens to assist with the operations.[25] The first four operations performed by the team included the removal of a keloidal adhesion from one woman's neck, which allowed her to move her head freely; the removal of a scar from another woman's right hand; the grafting of hair-bearing skin from behind one woman's ear to form a new set of eyebrows; and the grafting of a piece of skin from another woman's arm to repair her damaged eyelid.[26] The woman whose eyelid was repaired, Mitsuko Kuramoto, was the subject of rumors, with many claiming that her eyelid had been destroyed entirely and that the exposed eye wept uncontrollably as a result. This story was rebutted by surgeon Bernard Simon, who clarified that a person without an eyelid would probably go blind within a few days.[27] More surgeries followed, most involving pedicle grafts.[a][29]

After each surgery, the Maidens recuperated at the homes of various Quaker host families in Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York.[30] These host families bought the Maidens American clothing and encouraged them to participate in activities at local educational institutions, with many taking classes in cosmetology, nursing, painting, and secretarial work.[31] The Maidens' host families were described by Cousins as their "new parents", while some members of the press portrayed the matrons of these families as their "new American mothers".[b][33]

As part of a plan to study their mental health, Hitzig brought in a psychiatrist to assess the Maidens without informing them ahead of time. This decision was criticized by Yokoyama, Barsky, and Quaker representative Ida Day, who argued that the planned study would be exploitative. It was ultimately discontinued.[34]

كان من المقرر أصلاً أن تنتهي العمليات الجراحية في غضون عام من وصول الفتيات. إلا أنه نظراً لعدم كفاية عدد الأسرة في المستشفى، تم تمديد الجدول الزمني إلى صيف عام ١٩٥٦. وللالتزام بالجدول الزمني الأصلي، تقرر أن تعود نصف الفتيات إلى اليابان بينما تبقى النصف الآخر في الولايات المتحدة لإكمال عملياتهن الجراحية. [ ٣٥ ] من بين اللواتي تم اختيارهن للعودة كانت توموكو ناكاباياشي، [ ج ] التي طلبت من الفريق إجراء عملية أخيرة عليها: إزالة ندبة من الجزء الداخلي من ساعدها. وافق بارسكي على العملية، التي أُجريت في ٢٤ مايو ١٩٥٦. تسببت مضاعفات أثناء الجراحة في إصابة ناكاباياشي بفشل في القلب، وتوفيت في المساء. [ ٣٨ ] لم تحظَ وفاتها باهتمام كبير في وسائل الإعلام الأمريكية، لكنها حظيت بتغطية واسعة من بعض الصحف اليابانية، التي زعمت أن الفتيات كنّ يُستخدمن كـ"فئران تجارب" للتجارب الأمريكية. [ ٣٩ ]

عادت المجموعة الأولى من الفتيات إلى اليابان في يونيو 1956. [ 40 ] وعادت المجموعة الثانية في نوفمبر. [ 41 ] في المجمل، أُجريت 138 عملية جراحية للفتيات. [ 42 ] كان استقبالهن في اليابان متباينًا، إذ اعتبرهن البعض "ضحايا دعاية الحرب الباردة" وأن عملياتهن الجراحية أُجريت لإخفاء الأضرار الناجمة عن القنابل الذرية، بينما اعتبرهن آخرون "ضحايا الاستيعاب الثقافي"، وتعاطف معهن فريق ثالث، معتقدين أن تجربتهن قد تُسهم في توطيد الروابط بين الشعب الياباني والشعب الأمريكي. [ 39 ]

الحياة بعد إعادة الإعمار

After returning, a number of the Maidens married and became mothers. One, Masako Wada, became a social worker, initially finding employment at Tanimoto's Blind Children's Home before becoming a caseworker at a home for elderly hibakusha in Hiroshima. Another, Hideko Hirata, also became a social worker, advocating on behalf of burakumin (lit. 'hamlet/village people'). Others, such as Emiko Takemoto, Hiroko Tasaka, and Toyoko Morita, gravitated toward design, with Morita attending the Parsons School of Design and later becoming a well-known fashion designer in Japan.[43] Still others took professional positions as switchboard operators and secretaries or found employment as manual laborers. Niimoto, who had inspired the creation of the group, moved to America to live with Cousins. She subsequently moved in with a Japanese American family, working for some time as a nurse at Mount Sinai Morningside hospital in New York and then, after the birth of a child, in various freelance positions, including as a home-care nurse.[44] In 1980, she testified before the United States Senate about the health impacts of nuclear weapons.[45]

Legacy

Pictures of three of the Maidens appear without credit in the book Principles and Practice of Plastic Surgery, written by Barsky and co-edited by Kahn and Simon, to demonstrate the effects of radiation burns.[46] They are also the subject of the 1984 dance drama No More Hiroshimas—A Lone Star Shinning. Written by Hideo Kimura and scored by Shigeo Tohno, the drama portrays the experiences of hibakusha on the day that Hiroshima was bombed.[47] A Maiden named "Hideko" appears in the play Gretty Good Time, written by John Beluso, and the Maidens are also mentioned in the play No One as Nasty, written by Susan Nussbaum:

...and the Hiroshima maidens got burned and disfigured, there's a word, "disfigured", because of, why? Because—They were in Hiroshima. They were too close to avoid the fire, too far to be consumed...[48]

The Maidens are also portrayed in the 1988 movie Hiroshima Maiden, which depicted a hibakusha woman staying with an American family.[49] In 1994, poet Daniel James Sundahl released a book titled Hiroshima Maidens: Imaginary Translations from the Japanese, which recounts the psychological impact the bombing of Hiroshima might have had on the Maidens.[50]

Interpretations and criticism

Discussions of the Hiroshima Maidens project have centered on American exceptionalism, American culpability for dropping the atomic bomb, and interpretations of the Maidens' femininity. In 1985, Rodney Barker released a biography of the Hiroshima Maidens. This biography, described by historian Caroline Chung Simpson as "the most comprehensive story of the 1955 project", was criticized by New York Times critic Taylor Branch for dismissing Japanese culture while praising "American values".[51] Barker responded by claiming that his book was "no comment on cultural superiority" but that it did show how certain aspects of American culture helped the Maidens prosper as humans.[52] According to Chung Simpson, Barker saw the Hiroshima Maidens project as a "story of love and compassion" that showed how people from different backgrounds could come together in "sacrifice and generosity".[53] Chung Simpson herself rejects this premise, instead arguing that the project's primary allure was in its affirmation of "American domesticity" during the difficult postwar period.[54]

Academic David Serlin argues that supporters of the Hiroshima Maidens viewed them through "Western paradigms of beauty" and womanhood, suggesting that their public treatment allowed everyday people to see both the promise and "horror" of medical science.[55] Later, in a 2010 paper, historian Robert Jacobs argues that the project allowed American media to portray America as a "healer" of atomic bomb survivors rather than as the source of their injuries. In Jacobs's view, this narrative reinforced the representations of American "technological prowess" and goodwill that were used to justify dropping atomic bombs on Japanese citizens in the first place. He also argues that the project ignored male hibakusha, claiming that if young Japanese men were included in the project, it would have invoked unwanted memories of Japanese soldiers, thus making them unfit for American generosity.[56]

Historian Naoko Shibusawa claims that the use of maternal language when describing the Maidens made both American aid and American authority seem natural while shifting the responsibility for caring for hibakusha to private groups rather than the US government.[57] According to historian Naoko Wake, the femininity of the Maidens made them "worthy recipients of care" despite the US government's refusal to recognize their right to treatment officially. She further claims that the Maidens' injuries served as a public spectacle and that they were "quickly replaced" by Americans who were afraid that they would become victims of atomic warfare next.[58]

List

See also

  • Sadako Sasaki
  • White Light/Black Rain: The Destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (2007). documentary by Steven Okazaki, HBO, August 6, 2007.

Notes

  1. A type of graft that involves moving healthy tissue to an injured area from other parts of the body.[28]
  2. Chung Simpson criticizes these portrayals in her book An Absent Presence: Japanese Americans in Postwar American Culture, 1945-1960, describing them as "anecdotes that [are] often blatantly maudlin sketches of unbounded devotion" and arguing that they fail to adequately represent the roles that Japanese Americans like Yuri Kochiyama and Helen Yokoyama played in the Maidens' lives.[32]
  3. Various given names are used for Nakabayashi in different accounts. Barker, Chung Simpson, and Jacobs write her name as Tomoko.[36] However, Serlin writes her name as Tomako and Phu writes her name as Tamako.[37]
  4. Barker and Wahrman list Yamamoto's given name as Atsuko while Serlin lists it as Atsue.[59]

References

  1. Kort 2007, p. 3.
  2. Tomonaga 2019, pp. 493–499.
  3. Tomonaga 2019, p. 495.
  4. Barker 1985a, p. 58; Serlin 2004, p. 63; Fujino 2005, p. 107.
  5. Wake 2022, p. 3.
  6. Serlin 2004, p. 59.
  7. Barker 1985a, pp. 59–60.
  8. Barker 1985a, p. 61; Miyamoto 2015, pp. 123–134.
  9. Barker 1985a, p. 61.
  10. Barker 1985a, p. 61; Serlin 2004, p. 63.
  11. Serlin 2004, pp. 63–64.
  12. Serlin 2004, pp. 63–69.
  13. Barker 1985a, p. 70.
  14. Phu 2012, p. 90.
  15. Barker 1985a, pp. 70–73.
  16. Barker 1985a, p. 77; Serlin 2004, p. 64.
  17. Serlin 2004, p. 64.
  18. Barker 1985a, pp. 86–87; Serlin 2004, p. 78.
  19. Barker 1985a, pp. 87–89.
  20. Barker 1985a, p. 93; Serlin 2004, p. 82.
  21. Serlin 2004, pp. 82–83.
  22. Serlin 2004, pp. 87–88.
  23. Barker 1985a, pp. 3–12; Meginnis 2014.
  24. Meginnis 2014; Wake 2022, p. 6.
  25. Fujino 2005, p. 108; Phu 2012, p. 90.
  26. Barker 1985a, p. 101.
  27. 12Serlin 2004, p. 84.
  28. Barker 1985a, p. 102; Serlin 2004, p. 98.
  29. Barker 1985a, pp. 102–103.
  30. Serlin 2004, p. 93.
  31. Serlin 2004, p. 101.
  32. Chung Simpson 2002, pp. 125–131.
  33. Chung Simpson 2002, pp. 124–125.
  34. Barker 1985a, pp. 103–106.
  35. Barker 1985a, pp. 134–135.
  36. Barker 1985a, p. 135; Chung Simpson 2002, p. 143; Jacobs 2010.
  37. Serlin 2004, p. 106; Phu 2012, p. 100.
  38. Barker 1985a, pp. 135–137; Phu 2012, p. 100.
  39. 12Serlin 2004, p. 106.
  40. Serlin 2004, p. 105.
  41. Barker 1985a, p. 167; Serlin 2004, p. 105.
  42. Barker 1985a, p. 151.
  43. Barker 1985a, pp. 179–222.
  44. Barker 1985a, pp. 180–201.
  45. Sandomir 2024.
  46. Phu 2012, p. 101.
  47. Dunning 1984.
  48. Lewis 1998.
  49. Kennedy 1988.
  50. Serlin 2004, p. 103.
  51. Branch 1985; Chung Simpson 2002, p. 118.
  52. Barker 1985b.
  53. Chung Simpson 2002, p. 118.
  54. Chung Simpson 2002, p. 133.
  55. Serlin 2004, p. 108.
  56. 12Jacobs 2010.
  57. Shibusawa 2021, p. 216; 253.
  58. 123Wake 2022, p. 6.
  59. Barker 1985a, p. 53; Serlin 2004, p. 64; Wahrman 2020.
  60. 1234567Wahrman 2020.
  61. Cousins 1967, p. 31.
  62. Barker 1985a, p. 191.
  63. Barker 1985a, p. 184.
  64. Barker 1985a, p. 212.
  65. Barker 1985a, p. 183.
  66. Phu 2012, p. 94.
  67. Barker 1985a, p. 53.
  68. Barker 1985a, p. 169.
  69. 12Phu 2012, p. 100.
  70. Fujino 2005, p. 107.
  71. Barker 1985a, p. 176.
  72. Barker 1985a, p. 201.
  73. Cousins 1967, p. 18.

Sources

Further reading

  • 'The Maidens tour Manhattan,' partial group picture taken in Central Park in Collier's, 26 October 1956, p. 92
  • The Hiroshima Maidens (8 min audio), CBC Radio Archives, 1957.
  • Matsubara, Miyoko (25 July 1999). "The Spirit of Hiroshima". Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Santa Barbara, CA 93101. Retrieved 24 August 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: location (link)