Charles II of Spain

Charles II^[a][b] (6 November 1661 –1 November 1700) was King of Spain from 1665 to 1700. The last monarch from the House of Habsburg, which had ruled Spain since 1516, his death without children resulted in the 1701 to 1714 War of the Spanish Succession.

For reasons still debated, Charles experienced lengthy periods of ill health throughout his life. This made the question of who would succeed him central to European diplomacy for much of his reign, with one historian writing that "from the day of his birth, they were waiting for his death".^[1]

The two candidates for the succession were Charles of Austria, and Philip of Anjou, the 16-year-old grandson of Louis XIV of France. Charles made the latter his heir shortly before dying in November 1700, but the acquisition of an undivided Spanish Empire by either threatened the European balance of power and resulted in war.

Born on 6 November 1661, Charles was the only surviving son of Philip IV of Spain and his second wife, his niece Mariana of Austria. Marriage within the same extended family was then common among the nobility,^[c] but the Spanish and AustrianHabsburgs were unusual in the extent to which they followed this practice. Of eleven marriages contracted by Spanish monarchs between 1450 and 1661, most contained some element of consanguinity, Philip and Mariana being one of two unions between an uncle and his niece.^[2][d] This policy may also have been driven by limpieza de sangre or "blood purity" statutes enacted in the early 16th century, which remained in force until the 1860s.^[3]

Intramarriage accentuated the so-called "Habsburg jaw", a physical characteristic common in both Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. One contemporary reported this was so pronounced in Charles that he swallowed his food without thoroughly chewing, leading to frequent stomach problems.^[4] A 2019 study based on an analysis of Habsburg portraits concluded this feature was likely due to a recessive trait, but in the absence of genetic material, such claims remain speculative.^[5]

The precise causes of Charles's ill-health remain disputed, especially as neither his elder sister, Margaret, who married her maternal uncle Leopold I, nor their child and his niece Maria, had similar health issues.^[6] Based on contemporary accounts, some modern researchers suggest hydrocephalus derived from a herpetic infection incurred as an infant.^[7][8][9]

After his birth, he was entrusted to the royal governess Mariana Engracia Álvarez de Toledo Portugal y Alfonso-Pimentel.^[10] Under her careful supervision, he survived childhood attacks of measles, chickenpox, rubella and smallpox, any one of which was then potentially fatal.^[11] He also had rickets, which left him unable to walk unaided until he was four and required him to wear leg braces until the age of five.^[12][e]

Despite these physical challenges, suggestions that Charles remained largely uneducated into his teens are incorrect. Ramos del Manzano, a legal expert from the University of Salamanca, was appointed his tutor when he was six.^[14] From the age of 12, he received lessons in music from Juan del Vado and mathematics from Jose Zaragoza, a professor at the Colegio Imperial de Madrid.^[15]

The extent of his physical and mental disabilities is hard to assess, since little is known for certain, and many claims are either unproven or incorrect. While prone to illness, he was extremely active physically, and contemporaries reported he spent much of his time hunting.^[16] One often cited example of his alleged mental incapacity is the period he spent sleeping with his father's disinterred body; this was in fact done under instructions from Mariana, whose doctors advised this would help him produce an heir.^[17]

Although reputedly subject to bouts of depression, his participation in government and reports from his council and observers including the French ambassador indicate his mental capacities remained intact.^[18] A report from 1691 submitted by an envoy of the Sultan of Morocco, relates that he was received by Charles himself, who played a full part in the discussions.^[19] Costanzo Operti, a Savoyard diplomat who attended regular audiences with Charles during the Nine Years' War, described him as affable and generous but shy and lacking self-confidence, characteristics noted by other foreign diplomats.^[20]

بسبب عدم إنجاب تشارلز وريثًا، خضعت ماري لويز لعلاجات بدائية للخصوبة تسببت لها بمشاكل صحية خطيرة. ^{[ 41 ]} توفيت في فبراير 1689، بعد فترة وجيزة من اندلاع حرب السنوات التسع مع فرنسا، على الأرجح بسبب التهاب الزائدة الدودية . ^{[ h ] [ 42 ]} تم اختيار زوجة جديدة من عائلة مشهورة بخصوبتها، وهي ماريا آنا من نويبورغ ، ابنة فيليب ويليام، ناخب بالاتينات ، وشقيقة زوجة الإمبراطور ليوبولد. ^{[ 43 ]} تم عقد زواج بالوكالة في أغسطس 1689 قبل حفل رسمي في مايو 1690. ^{[ 42 ]}

Maria Anna also failed to produce an heir, almost certainly because Charles was incapable of doing so, as his autopsy later revealed his sole remaining testicle was atrophied.^[44] His mother died on 16 May 1696, by which time Charles' health was clearly failing, making the succession increasingly urgent. Since the Crown of Spain passed according to cognatic primogeniture, it could be inherited through the female line. This enabled Charles' sisters Maria Theresa and Margaret Theresa to pass their rights to the children of their marriages with Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold. However, to prevent a union between Spain and France, Maria Theresa had renounced her inheritance rights on her marriage, in return for which Louis was promised a dowry of 500,000 gold écus, a huge sum that was never paid.^[45]

The Peace of Ryswick which ended the Nine Years' War in 1697 was the result of mutual exhaustion, and left the issue of the succession unresolved. Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor reluctantly signed the treaty in October 1697, but viewed it as a temporary pause in hostilities.^[46] Leopold and Margaret's daughter Maria Antonia had married Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, and they had a son before her death in 1692, Joseph Ferdinand. In the Treaty of The Hague (1698), England, France and the Dutch Republic attempted to impose a diplomatic solution by making him heir to the bulk of the Spanish monarchy, with France gaining Naples, Sicily and the Spanish province of Gipuzkoa. In return, Leopold's younger son Charles was made ruler of Milan, a possession considered vital to the security of Austria's southern border.^[47]

رفضت الحكومة الإسبانية الموافقة على أي تقسيم لأراضيها، رغم قبولها جوزيف فرديناند خليفةً لشارل. ^{[ 48 ]} أدى وفاة جوزيف فرديناند عام 1699 بمرض الجدري إلى توقيع معاهدة لندن (1700) ، التي جعلت الأرشيدوق شارل الوريث الجديد، مع تقسيم الممتلكات الإسبانية في أوروبا بين فرنسا وسافوي والنمسا. عدّل شارل وصيته لصالح الأرشيدوق، لكنه اشترط مجددًا وحدة الملكية الإسبانية. ^{[ 49 ]} في سبتمبر 1700، مرض شارل، وبحلول 28 سبتمبر لم يعد قادرًا على تناول الطعام. أقنعه لويس مانويل فرنانديز دي بورتوكاريرو بتعيين فيليب دوق أنجو ، حفيد لويس الرابع عشر ، وريثًا له. ^{[ 50 ]} توفي في الأول من نوفمبر عام 1700، عن عمر يناهز 38 عامًا. وسجل تشريح الجثة أن "قلبه كان بحجم حبة فلفل أسود؛ ورئتاه متآكلتان؛ وأمعاؤه متعفنة ومصابة بالغرغرينا؛ وكان لديه خصية واحدة سوداء كالفحم، ورأسه ممتلئ بالماء". ^{[ 51 ]} يشير هذا الأخير إلى استسقاء الرأس ، وهو مرض يرتبط غالبًا بالحصبة في مرحلة الطفولة ، أحد الأمراض العديدة التي أصيب بها تشارلز. ^{[ 9 ]} أُعلن فيليب ملكًا لإسبانيا في 16 نوفمبر عام 1700، وبدأت حرب الخلافة الإسبانية رسميًا في 9 يوليو عام 1701. ^{[ 52 ]}

في 7 نوفمبر 1693، صدر مرسوم ملكي يمنح ملاذاً آمناً في فلوريدا الإسبانية للعبيد الهاربين من مقاطعة كارولاينا الجنوبية الإنجليزية . ^{[ 53 ]} وفرت فلوريدا الحماية من العواصف في خليج المكسيك للسفن التجارية الإسبانية. كان الهدف من المرسوم تعزيز عدد سكانها مع إضعاف المستعمرة المجاورة التي كانت تطالب بالعاصمة الإسبانية سانت أوغسطين . ^{[ 54 ]} وقد تم إضفاء الطابع الرسمي على المرسوم عام 1733 من قبل فيليب الخامس ، مما أدى إلى تأسيس سانتا تيريزا دي موس عام 1738، وهي أول مدينة سوداء حرة معترف بها قانونياً في الولايات المتحدة الحالية . ^{[ 55 ]}

سُميت جزر كارولين باسم تشارلز عام 1666، وكذلك مدينة شارلوروا في بلجيكا الحالية عام 1686. ^{[ 56 ]} كما صدرت مراسيم باسمه تُجيز إنشاء جامعات في أمريكا الجنوبية لا تزال قائمة حتى اليوم. ففي بيرو ، شملت هذه الجامعات جامعة سان كريستوبال ، التي تأسست عام 1680، والجامعة الوطنية ؛ وفي غواتيمالا ، جامعة سان كارلوس دي غواتيمالا ، رابع أقدم جامعة في القارة. ومن بين الجامعات الأخرى جامعة سانتو توماس أكينو عام 1688، التي تُعد الآن جزءًا من جامعة الإكوادور المركزية ، وأخيرًا جامعة سان نيكولاس دي ميرا في بوغوتا ، كولومبيا، عام 1694. ^{[ 57 ]}

على الرغم من أن كارلوس لم يكن مولعًا بالفنون مثل والده، إلا أنه استعان بفنانين مثل الرسام الإيطالي لوكا جيوردانو وكلاوديو كويلو لتزيين الإسكوريال . وفي عام 1690، ابتكر كويلو أحد آخر وأهم الأمثلة على فن الباروك الإسباني ، وهو لوحة كارلوس الثاني وهو يسجد للقربان المقدس . ^{[ 58 ]}

يُنظر إلى عهد شارل على أنه عهد انحدار وانحطاط، وقد علّق سفير أجنبي عام 1691 قائلاً: "من غير المفهوم كيف استمرت هذه الملكية". ^{[ 36 ]} وتجادل دراسات أحدث بأن "أسطورة الانحدار وأسطورة الملك العاجز تبسيطية وغير دقيقة"، بينما يشير المؤرخ لويس ريبوت غارسيا إلى أنه "لم يكن مسحورًا ولا منحطًا" كما كان يُصوَّر سابقًا. ^{[ 59 ] [ 60 ]} وقد صوّرت الكتابات التاريخية التقليدية شارل على أنه عاجز ومُعاق عقليًا، رمزًا لانحطاط إسبانيا الهابسبورغية بعد حروب القرن السابع عشر. ومع ذلك، تُشير دراسات أحدث إلى أن هذه الآراء تأثرت بشدة بخلفائه من آل بوربون ، الذين استخدموا الدعاية للتقليل من شأن السلالة السابقة. ^{[ 61 ] [ 62 ]}

Despite their disastrous short-term impact, the financial measures taken by his advisors ended the chronic instability which had affected the Spanish currency throughout the 17th century, and helped drive sustainable economic growth.^[63] Its long term has been considered historically remarkable, exemplified by the deflation achieved during his reign.^[61] Many of the commercial and political policies initiated under Charles formed the basis for reforms enacted by his Bourbon successors.^[64] Spain's role in the European wars of his reign has also been reevaluated, with his army still relevant in the various anti-French alliances, and retaining the empire's core territories.^[62]